Book Reviews, Intellectual History

Review: Hegel: A Very Short Introduction

by Dave Seng

I am a fan of the Very Short Introduction series published by Oxford University Press. The series covers topics of history, literature, philosophy, and the sciences among others. Almost any academic subject is treated and the books are easily digestible and comprehended. I often recommend the series to those who ask me for an introduction to a philosopher or topic but do not want to immediately dive into a dense textbook. These books are great for anyone who wants a basic understanding of a topic, looking for a source that will aide their reading in the subject, or is beginning to read in a particular field and looking for a solid point of departure for further study. I have read several of these short introductions and gained valuable insight from them. I use one chapter from Floridi’s Information: A Very Short Introduction as required reading in one of my classes.

As I am currently reading through the works of Georg W. F. Hegel (primarily his Philosophy of Right, and Philosophy of History), I took a small detour and picked up Peter Singer’s Hegel: A Very Short Introduction. Hegel is an important thinker, but he not easily discernable. I found Singer’s short introduction to by helpful and what I needed to get back on track with my Hegel reading. So if you are interested in finding a “quick-start” guide to understanding Hegel, at least at the basic level, I recommend Singer’s Hegel: A Very Short Introduction. For me, Singer provides all the necessary explication of Hegel’s main ideas that I needed to make my reading of Philosophy of Right much more meaningful.

Singer divides this introduction into six chapters: Hegel’s Life and Times, History With a Purpose, Freedom and Community, The Odyssey of Mind, Logic and Dialectics, Aftermath. It would be beyond the scope of this review to break down each chapter. However, I will try to demonstrate why this introduction is worth reading, especially if you are interested in understanding the thought of Hegel. The two most important concepts to understand in Hegel’s philosophy is his idea of Geist and his conceptual theme of dialectic.

After situating Hegel in his historical context, Singer highlights and explains the most important aspects of Hegel’s philosophy. This is really helpful because Hegel was one of the last great system builders of the Western intellectual tradition. In other words, Hegel was among the last to attempt to make sense out of such perennial questions as (What is reality? What is the ultimate good? What is the total meaning of things?) and answer these questions in a complete and systematic way which makes sense out of reality and experience as a whole. Today, due to postmodernism, grand narratives of reality have fallen out of fashion. Hegel’s great interpretive scheme of the world is a cosmic one—a spiritual one really—grounded in mind or what he calls Geist (the German word for mind or spirit) it is where the English word for ghost comes from and also, interestingly, the word geyser. Hegel’s conception of Geist, then, is something like an immaterial life force or purposeful spiritual ‘world-mind’ that encompasses all reality (some translations of Hegel’s works use the term ‘world-mind’ for Geist). For Hegel, Geist, is the complete totality of all reality, including being and becoming, the mental and external, finite and infinite—everything is grounded in Geist. (As we sill see below, much of Hegel’s philosophy seeks to bring unity out of conflicting paradigms or opposing forces, for now it is enough to know that everything is grounded in Geist and the dialectic is the process that Geist uses to bring about unity from opposites). Singer explains that Geist is both a spiritual or mental force in the world and it is central to Hegel’s philosophical system. Singer puts it this way, “So crucial is this idea that Hegel actually says that the whole object of the Philosophy of History is to become acquainted with Geist in its guiding role in history” (60). So when reading Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, or his Philosophy of History, it is helpful to understand that Hegel is trying to explain how the world-mind, or Geist is driving society, nations, ethics, law and history.

The concept of dialectic is also important to Hegel. In Philosophy of Right, Hegel is careful to distinguish his method of dialectic from that of Socrates and Plato. Dialectic, means ‘conversation’ and in philosophy, in the classical sense, dialectic means the rational and analytical investigation of truth through conversation and dialogue. According to Hegel, however, Plato’s dialectical method does not go far enough. Hegel thought that coming to greater clarity about something through conversation did not serve a greater historical purpose. For Hegel, dialectic is the process which Geist reconciles conflicting ideological forces in history. Singer explains that there is nothing mysterious about Hegel’s line of thought. He further points out that Hegel developed this formula in his work on logic. The dialectic starts with an assertion or proposition, the thesis, moves to a second stage which is the opposite of the thesis, the antithesis, and is unified in what Hegel calls the synthesis. Hegel applies this line of thinking to various movements in history from classical Greece, the Reformation, and the French revolution to name a few. A really quick example might help. In political economics a Hegelian dialectic could look like this—Thesis: Capitalism (private property is allowed) Antithesis: Communism (private property is not allowed), Synthesis: Fascism (private property and enterprise is allowed as long as the producers obey the dictates of the totalitarian State) this is oversimplified, of course, but Hegel’s dialectic is an attempt to show the unification of opposing ideas in a new idea. The thesis would be the first stage in history, the antithesis would be the second state in history, the historical working out of the opposite idea, and the synthesis would be the final stage of some kind of new intellectual or historical unity. For Hegel, however, the dialectic does not stop at the synthesis. The synthesis becomes the foundation of a new thesis and the dialectic moves on to greater and grander abstraction.

Some scholars have doubted the importance and significance of Hegel’s dialectic. To Hegel, it was very significant. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with it in Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. It was also an influence on Marx, who modified the formula to what he called dialectical materialism. Marx made the dialectic a purely material phenomenon. Singer’s introduction does a great job explaining these ideas and he clearly demonstrates the influence of Hegelian philosophy on other thinkers such as Marx and how those ideas have influenced the world around us. Singer’s short book Hegel: A Very Short Introduction is very helpful for those who want to gain a better understanding of Hegel and his importance in intellectual history.

Works Cited

Singer, Peter. Hegel: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2001.

Book Reviews, Resources, Uncategorized

Review: An Introduction to Ethics, Brian Besong

by Dave Seng

Brian Besong. An Introduction to Ethics: A Natural Law Approach, Cascade Books, 2018. (Paperback ISBN:9781498298896); $30.00

The light of natural reason, whereby we discern what is good and what is evil, which is the function of the natural law, is nothing else than an imprint on us of the divine light. – St. Thomas Aquinas

Hence it is evident that the state is a creation of nature, and that man is by nature a political animal. – Aristotle

Although it has largely been forgotten, natural law theory has played a primary role in the Western intellectual tradition for at least two thousand years. In his book, An Introduction to Ethics: A Natural Law Approach, (AIE), ethicist Brian Besong presents and defends a very accessible and easy to understand formulation of natural law. AIE itself is written as an introductory text for a college-level ethics course, but it is also a very nice resource for the general reader just wanting a basic understanding of ethics and the main ideas of the natural law tradition. Ethics, of course, is the branch of philosophy that seeks to explain how things like good and evil are applied to personal actions, decisions, and relationships, including one’s interaction in their community and society at large. Our moral values are what help us to determine right and wrong human behavior. Natural law is simply the ethical theory that helps us understand how general and universal rules of conduct, both at the individual and social levels, are derived from natural reason, and the world itself, which is conceived as rationally ordered.

Before we get to the review, I want to make a few comments about the natural law tradition and then posit three key concepts of natural law, which are important as they relate to AIE. As noted, natural law is an important idea in Western thought. It is important because it directly relates to human flourishing. In intellectual history, it can be seen in Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics (Epictetus, Seneca, Aurelius, and others), it was incorporated into Christian philosophical reflection, and is starting to see a re-discovery today. It is not necessary to be a Christian, or theist, in order to hold to natural law theory. Three key concepts of the classical natural law tradition are:

1. Human beings have an essential nature established by God, who designed humans to live and flourish in prescribed ways (philosophers from Aristotle to the Stoics have largely developed this concept).

2. Even without knowledge of God, reason as the essence of our nature, can discover the laws that are necessary for human flourishing (Aristotle and Aquinas primarily develop this line of thought).

3. The natural laws are universal and unchangeable, and they should be used to judge individual societies and their positive laws. Positive (or actual) laws of societies that are not in line with the natural law are not truly laws but counterfeits (mostly from the Stoics).

As we will soon discover, AIE does an excellent job explicating these key ideas. Besong’s book has two goals, (first) it seeks to lay out the central concepts of ethics, and why it is important to think about right and wrong human conduct, and (second), apply natural law thinking to the important questions and issues that arise from ethical concerns. As an introduction to ethics, Besong provides excellent illustrations which, I think, naturally resonate with many students today. The book succeeds in meeting these goals, which is not an easy accomplishment.

AIE has these six basic chapters—Foundational Issues, The Pursuit of Happiness, Good and Evil, Moral Responsibility, Rights and Duties, and Virtues and Vices. The book itself comes to 232 pages including two appendices (one on how to read philosophy, the other answering objections to natural law theory), a bibliography, and an index. Unfortunately, however, the book is poorly indexed as key terms are missing (this is probably due to the publisher, not the author, as a good index is expensive to produce). Each chapter has comprehension questions that the reader or student can use to better understand the content of the material. In addition, clear definitions of key terms are always given.

One of the first things that Besong discusses in his chapter, Foundational Issues, is that is it impossible to be a moral relativist. The reason for this is straightforward, if one were to hold moral relativism as objectively true, he or she would then be making an objectively true statement, and hold to an objective position, not a relative or subjective one. Further, our most basic intuitions of right and wrong are rarely incorrect. Who would really argue that torturing babies for fun is morally acceptable, or kindness to others is morally wrong? On occasion, our basic moral intuitions could be wrong (though maybe more rare at the most fundamental levels), they are generally corrected with careful reflection and thoughtfulness. After all, we have the ability to think rationally and carefully about which moral intuitions are correct and how they relate to one another. Human beings do have the capacity for rationality. Besong does a great job pointing out that moral laws have objective validity. The human faculty of reason is an important one.

Throughout the book, the importance of human rationality is highlighted. It is the unique capacity for rationality that makes humans distinct from other animals. Squirrels, kangaroos, and cephalopods do not rationally reflect on their actions or create institutions that benefit their species. Peregrine falcons do not build hospitals, law courts, libraries, or seek an education that promotes their well-being. As Besong points out, when humans reason well, they are using their characteristically highest function (51).

The chapter on happiness is significant and demonstrates the primary motivation in human action and the foundation for natural law. In addition to the natural use of reason in ethical reflection, it is also the drive for human happiness which is the chief concern for the natural law tradition and the key factor in human flourishing. Both Aristotle and Aquinas believe that everyone acts for some good which provides happiness. It is irrational to act towards one’s misery and dissatisfaction. Natural law explains that happiness is that which ultimately supplies human flourishing. When someone makes rational choices for a good end, happiness is the result, just as a well-governed, rational, and just state provides happiness and flourishing for its citizens. The human drive for happiness is easily discovered. When you ask someone why they do what they do, you will find that happiness is the chief end of human activity. Perhaps you have questioned someone, “why do you work so hard?” They might say, so I can meet the needs of my family and buy things.” But when you drill down and ask, “why do you want to meet your family’s needs or buy things?”, you will discover that happiness is the ultimate pursuit. Whatever we do, it is with the end of some form of happiness in mind.

Natural law is an important ethical theory. Brian Besong has done a service by bringing an introductory text to the student and general reader. As noted, one does not have to hold to Christian theism in order to believe in natural law–Aristotle and the Stoics were not Christians while Aquinas was. The important contribution of Western natural law thinking is a compelling and significant view of reality itself. It is the view that social and political values are built into human nature and reality itself. This is the important metaphysical foundation of ethics. Ethical values are properties of being and can be rationally discovered, expressed, and applied.

Book Reviews, Philosophy, Uncategorized

Review: An Introduction to Philosophy, Daniel Sullivan

by Dave Seng

Daniel Sullivan. An Introduction to Philosophy: Perennial Principles of the Classical Realist Tradition. TAN Books, 2009. (Paperback ISBN:0895554690); $18.89

Our most commonplace expressions of optimism or pessimism, selfishness or high-mindedness, idealism or cynicism, carry along with them unacknowledged assumptions about the nature of the universe as a whole and man’s place in it—Daniel Sullivan

Over the years, one of the best introductions to the field of philosophy, and a text that I have found to be among the most useful is Daniel Sullivan’s An Introduction to Philosophy: Perennial Principles of the Classical Realist Tradition. Daniel Sullivan was one of the great translators of Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologica.

Since one of the themes of this blog is the importance of realism and why its recovery is necessary for the flourishing of Western civilization, I thought a review of this introductory textbook is in order. First, a quick note about realism since Sullivan seeks to explain the big questions of philosophy from the standpoint of classical realism. Realism is the metaphysical doctrine that Forms, or essences, possess objective reality. In modern philosophy, realism is the concept (contrasted with idealism) that physical objects exist independently of perception, the mind, or theory of reality. For realists, theories of reality are logically separate from objective reality itself (that is, epistemological theories do not determine reality). The name itself was given to a certain philosophic way of thought first inaugurated by Plato and Aristotle, developed and refined in the Middle Ages, and still living at the present time. This view includes three basic theses: 1. The world is made up of substantial beings really related to one another, which exist independently of any human opinions or desires. 2. These substances and relations can be known by the human mind as they are in themselves. 3. Such knowledge can offer sound and immutable guidance (the law of nature) for individual and social action. Regarding the overall approach of a realist philosophy, Sullivan explains, “If you wish to emphasize the rock-solid foundation of our philosophy in the nature of things as they are, you can call it the Realist philosophy. Stressing the collective labor which has gone into its elaboration over the centuries, it may be termed the Common philosophy. Or, since metaphysics is the archstone of our philosophy, we can call it the philosophy of being” (279). Sullivan seeks to apply the classical realist tradition of Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, and their best modern interpreters to the perennial questions of our day.

Originally published in 1957, TAN Books republished this textbook in 1992 and 2009. It is still in publication at the time of this writing. The endurance of this book speaks to the timeless questions of philosophy and the human condition. For the intellectually honest, the big questions of life never really go away, and Sullivan’s text brings wisdom, clarity, and insight. Sullivan does a great job with teaching one how to think carefully and rationally about such timeless questions as the nature of mankind, the way we know things, the life of virtue, the road to happiness, and the wonder of being or reality itself. The writing is clear, easy to understand, and is free of needless jargon and system building. Sullivan clearly explicates the great questions of life through an understanding of intellectual history (the development of ideas that impact society and culture) and a solid demonstration of the problems themselves. Mortimer Adler once said that “unless the philosopher solves problems by laying adequate analytical foundations for demonstration and, in the light thereof, by proving conclusions from self-evident premises, he does nothing” (189). In this text, Sullivan does just that. He does an excellent job of presenting and defending some of the great issues which impact everyone in some way, both through a historical analysis of the development of these ideas and a logical examination of them. His book is very accessible to non-philosophers and educated laypeople alike.

The book itself is divided into five sections. After explaining the inevitability of philosophy, because everyone, when pressed, has some ideas regarding the ultimate concerns of life, Sullivan lays out his text to address the historical rise of philosophy, the meaning of man, the making of man, the universe of man, and the universe of being. While these might sound like dated or abstract descriptors, Sullivan is really seeking to explain what it means to be human and have a particular nature (the meaning of man), what it takes for humans to flourish (the making of man), and the world in which we live in, the world of bodies and nature (the universe of man), and the realm of being which cannot be denied and has been a perennial source of wonder since man first began to philosophize. This is the world of metaphysics, the quest to understand the ultimate first causes of all reality both material and immaterial. The first philosophers in the historical record were, in fact, metaphysicians because they tried to understand all of reality, including such great questions as the intellectual nature of mankind, the nature of good, what it means to live a good life, and the source and cause of justice, mathematics, change and permanence, and the first principles which make these possible—and, finally, the ultimate question, why is there something rather than nothing? In short, Sullivan carefully helps one to understand that metaphysics—the philosophy of being—seeks to understand these ultimate “why” questions.

Sullivan, however, doe not do this in an overly technical way. When discussing the nature of man and the nature of knowledge, or how we know things, the author helps us to understand the unique gift of reason that everyone has. Besides being an animal, mankind has a power—the power of reason which in itself makes him different in kind from the rest of the animals. Reason, therefore, is the defining characteristic of human beings. We can choose whether or not we want to use our reason, and how we use it, but reason cannot be denied. Human flourishing requires us to use our reason well. After all, human beings are the only species that can reflect on their own thoughts and discover principles of truth and reality. Sullivan reminds us that human beings are not primarily material things. “In short, man is a being altogether unique as compared with the rest of the physical universe, because in knowing and judging he rises above the inexorable law and rigidity of the realm of matter” (64). Sullivan helpfully provides the metaphysical foundations for what it means to be human.

These great ideas of classical realism, the nature of man, and the ultimate metaphysical questions which have always been part of the enduring human quest are helpfully illuminated by Sullivan’s text. Although an introduction, it provides a solid foundation for further exploration. If one is interested in gaining wisdom and insight into the timeless conversations of what it means to exist as human beings and the ultimate nature of reality, this is a great book to start with.

Works Cited

Adler, Mortimer J. “The Demonstration of God’s Existence.” The Thomist, 1943, pp. 188 – 218.

Sullivan, Daniel J. An Introduction to Philosophy: Perennial Principles of the Classical Realist Tradition. TAN Books, 2009.

Book Reviews, Natural Theology, Philosophical Theology, Theology, Uncategorized

Review: Five Views on Apologetics

by Dave Seng

[Note: This essay was published about 17 years ago in Tabletalk when I worked at Ligonier Ministries. It is an older piece but perhaps it will be of some help.]

Book Review

Five Views on Apologetics Ed. By Steven B. Cowen

Zondervan Publishing House, 2000.

Assessing Apologetic Methodologies

Editor Steven B. Cowen presents the aspiring apologist with a highly valuable resource with the volume Five Views on Apologetics, (FVOA) published by Zondervan. The work is generally very readable and any informed layperson would find this book clear and concise. All Christians who seek to think rationally and critically about the truth of Christianity will find the book very helpful. The strength of the volume rests in its presentation and defense of various schools of apologetic methodology. The reader is introduced to all five major schools—classical, evidential, cumulative case, presuppositional, and reformed epistemology.

William Lane Craig presents the Classical method, which he states is based on natural theology and Christian evidence such as the deity of Christ, the reliability of the Scripture, and the resurrection (28). Craig holds a two-step approach to apologetics in which he argues for the truth of theism based on Thomas Aquinas’ “Five Ways” to establish that we live in a theistic universe and then argues for Christianity based upon various kinds of evidence. Craig’s argumentation is strong but his most interesting contribution lies with his discussion of faith and reason drawn principally from Martin Luther. Craig uses Luther’s categories of the magisterial use of reason and the ministerial use of reason (36). Luther called the magisterial use of reason that which adjudicates the truthfulness of the gospel based upon shear reason alone. In the magisterial use of reason, human reasoning becomes the basis and foundation for faith. The ministerial use of reason is how the Holy Spirit guides the Christian in deciding Christian truth claims, “reason submits to and serves the gospel” (36). Most theologians reject the former and accept the latter as the appropriate use of reason. Craig claims, “Reason under the sovereign guidance of God’s Spirit and Word is a useful tool in helping us to understand and defend our faith” (37). Many of the 17th century Protestant and Lutheran Scholastics, found the ministerial use of reason helpful in discerning the place and purpose of philosophy and establishing sound principles derived from Scripture.

Evidential apologetics focuses largely on the historical evidence for Christianity. While Classical apologetics argues deductively (reasoning in which the conclusion follows with logical necessity from the premises), Evidential apologetics is largely inductive in its approach. Inductive reasoning is a form of argumentation that draws its conclusion based upon probability. (Inductive reasoning is used most often by historians and scientists and is empirical in nature.) The evidentialist, then, will draw the best possible conclusions based upon his or her premises. Evidential apologetics is termed a “one-step” approach (as opposed to Craig’s two-step method) because it seeks to argue from the very essence of what Christians believe.

Gary Habermas contributes arguments from the historical nature of Christian events based upon what he calls a “minimal facts” approach. Minimal facts, according to Habermas, are facts that are either accepted by critics or facts that would be absurd for critics to deny. The strength of the evidential method is in asserting the historical character of the Christian faith. Evidentialists will argue for theism and, more specifically, Christian theism but do not stress an elaborate use of natural theology the way classical apologists will. Nevertheless, Habermas claims that “historical evidence can serve as a species of argument for God” (92).

Paul Feinberg, the cumulative case contributor, presents a case for Christianity that is rationally compelling. Feinberg does not build his case for Christianity based on formal logical proof (i.e. inductive or deductive reasoning) but claims the best case for Christianity will be somewhat similar to how a lawyer presents a brief in a law court, or how a historian explains facts and events, or how a literary critic presents an interpretation of literature (151). The cumulative case method is sometimes called the “inference to the best explanation approach” (152). Feinberg draws from a wide variety of evidence that is common to our human experience. Cumulative case apologetics views Christian theism, other theistic religions, and atheism as systems of belief (151). The cumulative case apologist will then marshal all available evidence from the fields of history, literature, law, and philosophical theology to discern which system of belief makes more sense out the facts of our human condition.

John Frame represents the presuppositional school of apologetics. The main thrust of Frame’s argumentation is that the Bible is the only certain source of truth, ethics, and epistemology. Presuppositionalists claim that the noetic effects of sin have affected human reason in such a way that there is little or no common ground between the Christian and non-believer. The apologist, therefore, must presuppose the truth of Christianity and then argue “transcendentally” that is, the presuppositionalist would claim that every fact and argument presupposes the God of the Scriptures.

Finally, Kelly James Clark rounds out the discussion of apologetic methodology with his version of Reformed epistemology. In contrast to the classical, evidential, and cumulative case schools, Reformed epistemology claims that one’s belief in God is rational apart from evidence. The Reformed epistemologist does not deny that evidence is available or important, but claims that evidence is not necessary for rational theistic belief. Reformed epistemology argues that we know many things intuitively without empirical evidence, such as 2 + 2 = 4, moral truths such as kindness is always a virtue and killing people for fun is always wrong, and memory facts such as “I had breakfast this morning.” Clark also suggests that belief in God is more like the belief that other people exist (272). Belief in God is not arbitrary, however, and Clark points to Calvin’s doctrine that every human person has been imbued with a sense of the divine. Nonbelievers simply suppress this knowledge due to their sinfulness (Romans 1).

The apologetic task has long been a part of the Christian intellectual tradition. Christians from the earliest days of the faith can be seen contending for the faith that was delivered to the saints (Jude 3). This is easily seen in Justin Martyr’s Disputations with Trypho the Jew, Athenagoras’ Supplication to The Roman Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, Augustine’s City of God, and various works by Anselm, Aquinas, Pascal, and Alvin Plantinga in the Twenty-First century (among others). The task of defending the faith will, to some degree, be rooted in the historical and cultural climate the apologist finds himself or herself in. Many of the contributors to FVOA conclude that the Bible does not teach one specific methodology to the exclusion of other approaches. We see an evidential and empirical emphasis on the use of the senses in Luke 24:39-40, Matthew 28:6 and I John 1:1-2. The use of the mind and rationality is affirmed in I Corinthians 10:15, 2 Corinthians 10:5 and 1 John 4:1. And Romans 1:18 – 23 teaches that the truth of God is clearly perceived by unbelievers. Whatever apologetic method one holds to then, a powerful and coherent case for Christianity will show that Christian theism alone illuminates human experience (is existentially meaningful), objectively true, and more rationally compelling than any other world religion. Finally, it would be a wonderful day indeed to see a time when Christians stop debating apologetic methodology (as important as it is) and start engaging an unbelieving world with the truth of their faith.