Almighty God, who hast given us this good land for our heritage; We humbly beseech thee that we may always prove ourselves a people mindful of thy favour and glad to do thy will. Bless our land with honourable industry, sound learning, and pure manners. Save us from violence, discord, and confusion; from pride and arrogancy, and from every evil way. Defend our liberties, and fashion into one united people the multitudes brought hither out of many kindreds and tongues. Endue with the spirit of wisdom those to whom in thy Name we entrust the authority of government, that there may be justice and peace at home, and that, through obedience to thy law, we may show forth thy praise among the nations of the earth. In the time of prosperity, fill our hearts with thankfullness, and in the day of trouble, suffer not our trust in thee to fail; all which we ask through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen
Review: An Introduction to Ethics, Brian Besong
Brian Besong. An Introduction to Ethics: A Natural Law Approach, Cascade Books, 2018. (Paperback ISBN:9781498298896); $30.00
The light of natural reason, whereby we discern what is good and what is evil, which is the function of the natural law, is nothing else than an imprint on us of the divine light. – St. Thomas Aquinas
Hence it is evident that the state is a creation of nature, and that man is by nature a political animal. – Aristotle
Although it has largely been forgotten, natural law theory has played a primary role in the Western intellectual tradition for at least two thousand years. In his book, An Introduction to Ethics: A Natural Law Approach, (AIE), ethicist Brian Besong presents and defends a very accessible and easy to understand formulation of natural law. AIE itself is written as an introductory text for a college-level ethics course, but it is also a very nice resource for the general reader just wanting a basic understanding of ethics and the main ideas of the natural law tradition. Ethics, of course, is the branch of philosophy that seeks to explain how things like good and evil are applied to personal actions, decisions, and relationships, including one’s interaction in their community and society at large. Our moral values are what help us to determine right and wrong human behavior. Natural law is simply the ethical theory that helps us understand how general and universal rules of conduct, both at the individual and social levels, are derived from natural reason, and the world itself, which is conceived as rationally ordered.
Before we get to the review, I want to make a few comments about the natural law tradition and then posit three key concepts of natural law, which are important as they relate to AIE. As noted, natural law is an important idea in Western thought. It is important because it directly relates to human flourishing. In intellectual history, it can be seen in Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics (Epictetus, Seneca, Aurelius, and others), it was incorporated into Christian philosophical reflection, and is starting to see a re-discovery today. It is not necessary to be a Christian, or theist, in order to hold to natural law theory. Three key concepts of the classical natural law tradition are:
1. Human beings have an essential nature established by God, who designed humans to live and flourish in prescribed ways (philosophers from Aristotle to the Stoics have largely developed this concept).
2. Even without knowledge of God, reason as the essence of our nature, can discover the laws that are necessary for human flourishing (Aristotle and Aquinas primarily develop this line of thought).
3. The natural laws are universal and unchangeable, and they should be used to judge individual societies and their positive laws. Positive (or actual) laws of societies that are not in line with the natural law are not truly laws but counterfeits (mostly from the Stoics).
As we will soon discover, AIE does an excellent job explicating these key ideas. Besong’s book has two goals, (first) it seeks to lay out the central concepts of ethics, and why it is important to think about right and wrong human conduct, and (second), apply natural law thinking to the important questions and issues that arise from ethical concerns. As an introduction to ethics, Besong provides excellent illustrations which, I think, naturally resonate with many students today. The book succeeds in meeting these goals, which is not an easy accomplishment.
AIE has these six basic chapters—Foundational Issues, The Pursuit of Happiness, Good and Evil, Moral Responsibility, Rights and Duties, and Virtues and Vices. The book itself comes to 232 pages including two appendices (one on how to read philosophy, the other answering objections to natural law theory), a bibliography, and an index. Unfortunately, however, the book is poorly indexed as key terms are missing (this is probably due to the publisher, not the author, as a good index is expensive to produce). Each chapter has comprehension questions that the reader or student can use to better understand the content of the material. In addition, clear definitions of key terms are always given.
One of the first things that Besong discusses in his chapter, Foundational Issues, is that is it impossible to be a moral relativist. The reason for this is straightforward, if one were to hold moral relativism as objectively true, he or she would then be making an objectively true statement, and hold to an objective position, not a relative or subjective one. Further, our most basic intuitions of right and wrong are rarely incorrect. Who would really argue that torturing babies for fun is morally acceptable, or kindness to others is morally wrong? On occasion, our basic moral intuitions could be wrong (though maybe more rare at the most fundamental levels), they are generally corrected with careful reflection and thoughtfulness. After all, we have the ability to think rationally and carefully about which moral intuitions are correct and how they relate to one another. Human beings do have the capacity for rationality. Besong does a great job pointing out that moral laws have objective validity. The human faculty of reason is an important one.
Throughout the book, the importance of human rationality is highlighted. It is the unique capacity for rationality that makes humans distinct from other animals. Squirrels, kangaroos, and cephalopods do not rationally reflect on their actions or create institutions that benefit their species. Peregrine falcons do not build hospitals, law courts, libraries, or seek an education that promotes their well-being. As Besong points out, when humans reason well, they are using their characteristically highest function (51).
The chapter on happiness is significant and demonstrates the primary motivation in human action and the foundation for natural law. In addition to the natural use of reason in ethical reflection, it is also the drive for human happiness which is the chief concern for the natural law tradition and the key factor in human flourishing. Both Aristotle and Aquinas believe that everyone acts for some good which provides happiness. It is irrational to act towards one’s misery and dissatisfaction. Natural law explains that happiness is that which ultimately supplies human flourishing. When someone makes rational choices for a good end, happiness is the result, just as a well-governed, rational, and just state provides happiness and flourishing for its citizens. The human drive for happiness is easily discovered. When you ask someone why they do what they do, you will find that happiness is the chief end of human activity. Perhaps you have questioned someone, “why do you work so hard?” They might say, so I can meet the needs of my family and buy things.” But when you drill down and ask, “why do you want to meet your family’s needs or buy things?”, you will discover that happiness is the ultimate pursuit. Whatever we do, it is with the end of some form of happiness in mind.
Natural law is an important ethical theory. Brian Besong has done a service by bringing an introductory text to the student and general reader. As noted, one does not have to hold to Christian theism in order to believe in natural law–Aristotle and the Stoics were not Christians while Aquinas was. The important contribution of Western natural law thinking is a compelling and significant view of reality itself. It is the view that social and political values are built into human nature and reality itself. This is the important metaphysical foundation of ethics. Ethical values are properties of being and can be rationally discovered, expressed, and applied.
Aristotle and Augustine on Being, Truth, and Logic: Part Two
Note: The first part of the series can be found here. In that post, we explored some possible overlap between Aristotle and Augustine and the nature of being. In this post, we will continue the conversation as it relates to being and truth.
The first theme one comes to is the relationship between truth and being—an examination of the connection between what is, with what is true1. Aristotle and Augustine ground the truth of things in being, or reality. For example, Aristotle in his Metaphysics makes the connection between that which is and that which is true:
It is right also that philosophy should be called knowledge of the truth. For the end of theoretical knowledge is truth, while that of practical knowledge is action (for even if they consider how things are, practical men do not study the eternal, but what is relative and in the present). Now we do not know a truth without its cause; and a thing has a quality in a higher degree than other things if in virtue of it the similar quality belongs to the other things as well (e.g. fire is the hottest of things; for it is the cause of the heat of all other things); so that that which causes derivative truths to be true is most true. Hence the principles of eternal things must be always most true (for they are not merely sometimes true, nor is there any cause of their being, but they themselves are the cause of the being of other things), so that as each thing is in respect of being, so is it in respect of truth. (512)
Aristotle believes there is a universal and transcendent quality to truth and many different things can participate in truth or be called true. Aristotle indicates that universal things, like being or truth, are in some sense eternal, or transcendent, because they are what particular things, which are temporal and always changing, participate in. If there is something that demonstrates truth, there must be a higher source which is the cause of that truth, because Aristotle is interested in investigating the primary causes of things. Similarly, in prayer-like fashion to God, Augustine writes in his Confessions:
I looked at other things too and saw that they owe their being to you. I saw that all finite things are in you, not as though you were a place that contained them, but in a different manner. They are in you because you hold all things in your truth as though they were in your hand, and all things are true in so far as they have being. Falsehood is nothing but the supposed existence of something which has no being. (63, Emphasis added)
At least two things are important in these passages. First, each thinker holds that the being of things are true in as much as they correspond to reality. And second, it is the eternal or transcendent things which provide the foundation for the things of this world. What is it these philosophers are trying to explain? One of the central concerns for the metaphysician is to get the terms “is” and “is not” correct. If one does not get the nature of reality right, she runs the risk of getting everything else about it wrong. Augustine reminds readers that things are true in so far as they have being, and false if they have no being. And Aristotle makes a similar claim when he says that as each thing is in respect of being, so is it in respect to truth. Aristotle puts a finer point on this concept when he says, “Again, ‘being’ and ‘is’ mean that a statement is true, ‘not being’ that it is not true but false” (538). Augustine and Aristotle are telling readers that a thing (or perhaps concept) must correspond to reality in order to be considered true. If something has no being or actuality in reality, it is not true. (For Aristotle, that which is “act” or “in act” is that which has existence or participates in existence.) This is simply a restatement of the correspondence theory of truth—truth is that which corresponds to reality. Truth is grounded in being or reality. Each thinker agrees with this. But do they have good reasons that support this position? Aristotle and Augustine would point to the laws of logic for support.
Aristotle and Augustine believe the basic laws of logic reflect the nature of reality (or being). The foundational laws of logic are generally considered to be the law of noncontradiction (nothing can both be, and not be at the same time and same way), the law of identity (a thing is what it is, a true proposition is true), and the law of excluded middle (something either is or is not, with nothing in between; a proposition is either true or false). The correspondence theory of truth depends on the laws of logic because they are basic properties of being. In addition, the laws of logic are considered among the first principles of being because all other laws and principles follow from them. The law of excluded middle and the law of identity follow from the law of noncontradiction. The law of noncontradiction holds primacy because it is a judgment between being and nonbeing, which is one of contradiction because one must first discern whether something is or is not. Augustine restates the law of noncontradiction and places it as the first principle of logic when he says, “For nonentity is contrary of that which is” (397). A judgment between compatibility or contradiction must first be made between what is and what is not. Speaking about the law of noncontradiction, Aristotle says that it is “naturally the starting-point even for all the other axioms” (525). Identity and excluded middle logically follow.
Next time, well look at another way the law of noncontradiction has primacy and Augustine’s use of it.
1A full conversation about the nature and metaphysics of truth is beyond the scope of this essay. Here, the primary focus is on descriptive truth—truth as an agreement between human cognition and external reality.
Works Cited
Aristotle. The Works of Aristotle: 1. Great Books of the Western World. Vol. 7. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1999.
Augustine. The Confessions, The City of God, On Christian Doctrine. Great Books of the Western World. Vol. 16. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1999.
Review: An Introduction to Philosophy, Daniel Sullivan
Daniel Sullivan. An Introduction to Philosophy: Perennial Principles of the Classical Realist Tradition. TAN Books, 2009. (Paperback ISBN:0895554690); $18.89
Our most commonplace expressions of optimism or pessimism, selfishness or high-mindedness, idealism or cynicism, carry along with them unacknowledged assumptions about the nature of the universe as a whole and man’s place in it—Daniel Sullivan
Over the years, one of the best introductions to the field of philosophy, and a text that I have found to be among the most useful is Daniel Sullivan’s An Introduction to Philosophy: Perennial Principles of the Classical Realist Tradition. Daniel Sullivan was one of the great translators of Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologica.
Since one of the themes of this blog is the importance of realism and why its recovery is necessary for the flourishing of Western civilization, I thought a review of this introductory textbook is in order. First, a quick note about realism since Sullivan seeks to explain the big questions of philosophy from the standpoint of classical realism. Realism is the metaphysical doctrine that Forms, or essences, possess objective reality. In modern philosophy, realism is the concept (contrasted with idealism) that physical objects exist independently of perception, the mind, or theory of reality. For realists, theories of reality are logically separate from objective reality itself (that is, epistemological theories do not determine reality). The name itself was given to a certain philosophic way of thought first inaugurated by Plato and Aristotle, developed and refined in the Middle Ages, and still living at the present time. This view includes three basic theses: 1. The world is made up of substantial beings really related to one another, which exist independently of any human opinions or desires. 2. These substances and relations can be known by the human mind as they are in themselves. 3. Such knowledge can offer sound and immutable guidance (the law of nature) for individual and social action. Regarding the overall approach of a realist philosophy, Sullivan explains, “If you wish to emphasize the rock-solid foundation of our philosophy in the nature of things as they are, you can call it the Realist philosophy. Stressing the collective labor which has gone into its elaboration over the centuries, it may be termed the Common philosophy. Or, since metaphysics is the archstone of our philosophy, we can call it the philosophy of being” (279). Sullivan seeks to apply the classical realist tradition of Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, and their best modern interpreters to the perennial questions of our day.
Originally published in 1957, TAN Books republished this textbook in 1992 and 2009. It is still in publication at the time of this writing. The endurance of this book speaks to the timeless questions of philosophy and the human condition. For the intellectually honest, the big questions of life never really go away, and Sullivan’s text brings wisdom, clarity, and insight. Sullivan does a great job with teaching one how to think carefully and rationally about such timeless questions as the nature of mankind, the way we know things, the life of virtue, the road to happiness, and the wonder of being or reality itself. The writing is clear, easy to understand, and is free of needless jargon and system building. Sullivan clearly explicates the great questions of life through an understanding of intellectual history (the development of ideas that impact society and culture) and a solid demonstration of the problems themselves. Mortimer Adler once said that “unless the philosopher solves problems by laying adequate analytical foundations for demonstration and, in the light thereof, by proving conclusions from self-evident premises, he does nothing” (189). In this text, Sullivan does just that. He does an excellent job of presenting and defending some of the great issues which impact everyone in some way, both through a historical analysis of the development of these ideas and a logical examination of them. His book is very accessible to non-philosophers and educated laypeople alike.
The book itself is divided into five sections. After explaining the inevitability of philosophy, because everyone, when pressed, has some ideas regarding the ultimate concerns of life, Sullivan lays out his text to address the historical rise of philosophy, the meaning of man, the making of man, the universe of man, and the universe of being. While these might sound like dated or abstract descriptors, Sullivan is really seeking to explain what it means to be human and have a particular nature (the meaning of man), what it takes for humans to flourish (the making of man), and the world in which we live in, the world of bodies and nature (the universe of man), and the realm of being which cannot be denied and has been a perennial source of wonder since man first began to philosophize. This is the world of metaphysics, the quest to understand the ultimate first causes of all reality both material and immaterial. The first philosophers in the historical record were, in fact, metaphysicians because they tried to understand all of reality, including such great questions as the intellectual nature of mankind, the nature of good, what it means to live a good life, and the source and cause of justice, mathematics, change and permanence, and the first principles which make these possible—and, finally, the ultimate question, why is there something rather than nothing? In short, Sullivan carefully helps one to understand that metaphysics—the philosophy of being—seeks to understand these ultimate “why” questions.
Sullivan, however, doe not do this in an overly technical way. When discussing the nature of man and the nature of knowledge, or how we know things, the author helps us to understand the unique gift of reason that everyone has. Besides being an animal, mankind has a power—the power of reason which in itself makes him different in kind from the rest of the animals. Reason, therefore, is the defining characteristic of human beings. We can choose whether or not we want to use our reason, and how we use it, but reason cannot be denied. Human flourishing requires us to use our reason well. After all, human beings are the only species that can reflect on their own thoughts and discover principles of truth and reality. Sullivan reminds us that human beings are not primarily material things. “In short, man is a being altogether unique as compared with the rest of the physical universe, because in knowing and judging he rises above the inexorable law and rigidity of the realm of matter” (64). Sullivan helpfully provides the metaphysical foundations for what it means to be human.
These great ideas of classical realism, the nature of man, and the ultimate metaphysical questions which have always been part of the enduring human quest are helpfully illuminated by Sullivan’s text. Although an introduction, it provides a solid foundation for further exploration. If one is interested in gaining wisdom and insight into the timeless conversations of what it means to exist as human beings and the ultimate nature of reality, this is a great book to start with.
Works Cited
Adler, Mortimer J. “The Demonstration of God’s Existence.” The Thomist, 1943, pp. 188 – 218.
Sullivan, Daniel J. An Introduction to Philosophy: Perennial Principles of the Classical Realist Tradition. TAN Books, 2009.
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