It has been a while since I made a “top four” post. Here are the four most popular articles of 2021, in case you missed them the first time around. I will continue our study of democracy soon. Enjoy!
The Fantastic Four
Apprehending the Transcendent
“… that which causes derivative truths to be true is most true. Hence the principles of eternal things must be always most true (for they are not merely sometimes true, nor is there any cause of their being, but they themselves are the cause of the being of other things), so that as each thing is in respect of being, so is it in respect of truth.” Aristotle, Metaphysics.
I want to share this video which features an excellent discussion about transcendent truth and meaning in life between the philosopher Roger Scruton and psychologist Jordan Peterson. This is an important discussion because the disappearance of transcendent truth is one of the greatest problems we are encountering in the West. As the discussion points out, the fallacies of postmodernism result in a rejection of Being. I want to make a few comments about the discussion. First, why is it important to understand the metaphysical concept of Being?
Being is simply that to which existence (everything) belongs, and it is the task of the metaphysician to describe the causes, principles, and limitations which belong to different kinds of things. It is believed that understanding the modes and properties of being through the philosophical lenses of being and becoming, or being and non-being, that a greater apprehension of reality is achieved. Being is the exploration of reality, although, it may include more than physical reality because the metaphysician is also interested in how immaterial things like mathematics (including the axioms and laws of logic such as noncontradiction, identity, and excluded middle), the mind or intellect (or at least, objects of the mind), and moral truths such as justice, the good, or the concepts of right and wrong, relate to being. Metaphysicians explore the question, “is there an ultimate foundation to these things that make them possible?” Therefore, when Aristotle, Augustine, or any other classical metaphysician discusses themes such as being and truth, or logic, they are investigating the first principles of reality and how they relate to the world around us.
It is important to point out as Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, and Aquinas do, that there is a transcendent and universal quality to being. Briefly, these philosophers believe there is a transcendent nature to being because it is a universal concept just like truth, goodness, justice, and human nature (among others) are. These concepts are considered transcendent and universal because any number of particular things can participate in them. For example, many particular people can pursue justice and even experience instances of it. To the degree that a particular instance of justice is genuine, it resembles or takes part in the universal and transcendent definition of what it means to achieve justice which is true at all times and places. This is why an historian can say that a particular event in the past is just or unjust1.
Also, as far as Peterson is concerned I understand that many critiques of his thought can be made from a confessional Lutheran perspective and I am sympathetic to those critiques (Jung was a self-described Gnostic). On the other hand, it would be unwise to categorically reject some of his ideas. As St. Augustine would remind us, when we find truth we should accept it. I know my readers have a strong sense of discernment so I do not need to say more.
Finally, as an Aristotelian, I did not find anything metaphysically wrong in the discussion (at least not any major concerns). I have noticed that in many places Plato and Aristotle are complimentary to each other. I believe that both philosophers are necessary to read and understand in order to have a robust metaphysical understanding of the world. Dr. Mortimer Adler once made the quip that it has been said that all of Western philosophy is a series of footnotes to Plato and Aristotle, but it was Aristotle who wrote the footnotes.
That said, enjoy this Platonic discussion.
1Here, it is claimed that although the past no longer exists, it is a real object of study and perceptual thought and, therefore, has reality. That is, it has being and is related to being even though it is no longer in act or has actual existence. Humans are cognitively wired in some way to discern the past. Moral truths apply to history because of their transcendent nature.
On Democracy, Part One
Note: This is the first part of several essays that will explore the development of constitutional consensual government as it has developed in the West. This post is one of many and primarily focuses on definitions.
The idea of democracy is among the oldest and most inspiring ideals of the human spirit. In fact, it is impossible to get past the earliest writings of Western literature without encountering the idea of democracy and there is probably a no more controversial form of government. This ancient idea of government by the consent of citizens has been scorned, cheered, ridiculed, debated, argued for, and against by most of the greatest thinkers in history. Within the idea of democracy, we see many of the virtues and vices of Western civilization itself. For its very existence, democracy requires the free exchange of ideas, rule of law, public audit and accountability, discussion, debate, economic and individual freedom, dissent, and a constructive consensus among people for the purpose of building a government for the people. These ideals are inherent to the classical and Western ideas of democracy. On the other hand, democracy can easily devolve into mob rule, partisan politics, and a mere clash of wills – also elements found in Western liberal democracies. Democracy is an ideal and as such, it points to the greatness of what human beings should be able to accomplish. The greatest ancient proponents of democracy have been poets, playwrights, generals, and philosophers. Democracy, however, will always be an ideal. An examination of how this idea has developed and has come down through the ages will help shed understanding on the contemporary conception of democracy and modern republics. By examining this ancient ideal and exploring its evolution we will not only have a better conception of where we have been but the opportunities, possibilities, and challenges that face modern democracies.
When one investigates such a great idea as democracy it is helpful to start by clarifying and defining its meaning. When clarity is attained it becomes easier to understand its development in the course of Western intellectual history. In the case of democracy, however, a clear definition is difficult to attain but not impossible. The term “democracy” is often misunderstood and used without any deeper critical reflection. Many times, it automatically evokes conceptions such as the right to vote, majority rule, or a form of partisan representational government, without any kind of thought to what these terms are or should mean. None of these ideas alone, however, will be sufficient to express the ancient and classical ideal of democracy. Democracy can not simply refer to the right to vote, because many countries offer the right to vote without allowing any real power to its citizens. Also, majority rule alone is not itself democratic if it does not allow a voice for the minority or function under the rule of law. A simple “rule of the majority” can easily turn into a tyranny.
Furthermore, a strictly representative government is equally undemocratic if the political parties are served rather than citizens. Representatives that are devoted to their parties rather than seeking the will of their constituents are positively undemocratic. True democracies are not based solely on the right to vote, majority rule, or representation. Historically, most democracies have been a mixture of these elements – or in classical terms most democracies are a mixture of oligarchy, aristocracy and popular sovereignty (what eighteenth and nineteenth century thinkers, following Aristotle, called “mixed government”). Nonetheless, the idea of government by the people, under the equality of law, for the common good is an idea that is returned to again and again throughout history, and is an ideal that should be attempted even when we find instances in history when it is imperfectly conceived or executed. The ancient Athenians would always return to a democratic form of government whenever they were ruled by an oligarchy or tyranny.
One can get a better idea of democracy when it is contrasted with the idea of republic or republican form of government. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary defines a republic “as a government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law.”1 Similarly, Merriam-Webster’s defines democracy as “Government by the people; esp: rule of the majority, or a government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free elections.”2 There are several ideas that an investigation of these definitions will highlight. Both definitions take popular sovereignty as the starting point and seem to indicate that consent of the governed is a necessary requisite for each form of rule. Democracy seems to emphasize the rule of the many or majority as the supreme power regardless if it is a direct democracy or representation (indirect). The rule of law is never mentioned in the definition of democracy while law and representation seem essential to a republican form of government. It seems then, that democracy emphasizes the rule of the majority while a republic emphasizes representative government according to the rule of law. Also, since a republic is still based on the consent of a body of citizens, it should be considered a type or form of democracy although it should be distinguished from a pure or direct democracy. Perhaps this is why democracy is usually the term used to describe the American system although in actuality it is a republic.
Through the ages many authors and political philosophers have offered different definitions of democracy. Philosopher Ed Miller defines democracy as “government in which the power is vested in the body of citizens, either directly or through elected representatives.”3 Paul Woodruff simply states “democracy is government by the people for the people.”4 More philosophically, Mortimer Adler explains that the necessary elements of any democracy ought to allow individuals “to be governed by their consent, with a voice in their own government, and with their natural rights secured.”5 For these posts, a broad definition of democracy will be used to include all legitimate governments that seek to rule by the consensus of its citizens for the common good. This includes parliamentary forms of government, constitutional monarchies, as well as republics or the three part American system of President, Congress, and Judiciary. Ideally, a democracy exists when political power is based on a consensus of citizens for the purpose of the common good (if the common good is ignored a democracy would become a tyranny). For this reason, the term consensual government will be used to designate those legitimate governments that rest the ultimate political power in the many for the common good.
1 Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. S.V. Republic.
2 Ibid. S.V. Democracy.
3 Miller, Ed. Questions That Matter: An Invitation to Philosophy. 4th ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 1996), 573.
4 Woodruff, Paul. First Democracy: The Challenge of An Ancient Idea. (New York: Oxford University Press), 2005, 15.
5 Adler, Mortimer. Adler’s Philosophical Dictionary. (New York: Scribner, 1995), 79.
Excursus: Thoughts on Consensual Constitutional Representation
During the last several years I have noticed that it has become fashionable to cite the inherent weaknesses and flaws of Western liberal societies. Some think there is an inherent individualism that is to blame for the instability of liberalism while others point to their version of “equity” or private ownership of property as the basic flaws. Classical liberalism, or simply liberalism, is the social-political theory that stresses freedom from undue governmental interference and views the state as the guarantor of the basic liberties and rights of the individual. In the West, classical liberalism rests on some form of constitutional consensual government which forms the basis of the rule of law. I believe that it is profitable and healthy to rationally and carefully debate and explore the merits and demerits of classical liberalism. But as one who does not promote all or nothing type of thinking, it would be difficult to find another social or political order that provides more freedom, opportunity, and prosperity to individuals, families, and communities. As Aristotle would remind us, democracy is always an ideal. Representational democracy will always be an imperfect expression of a great ideal. Western civilization depends on this ideal.
I am not a political philosopher, but I did spend some time in my first MA program investigating the key ideas of freedom and democracy in the Western intellectual tradition. Further, ideas such as constitutional consensual representation, citizenship, natural law, and the rule of law are central to Western liberal democracies. These are great ideas and worth understanding and serious study.
In upcoming posts, I plan to take a break from metaphysics and explore some of these important concepts that are central to classical liberalism. As I indicated, many across the political spectrum have become disillusioned with Western liberalism. But as my advisor once asked me when I was exploring the pros and cons of democratic order in Western societies, “what other alternative do we have?”
As first principles are important when trying to understand any field of endeavor, the following posts will simply explore and investigate the intellectual history of consensual government and why it might be worth understanding. It is my hope that we begin again to understand and rediscover the importance of these foundational truths together.
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